Deposits of fungible goods (like money), also called irregular deposits, perform an important social function which cannot be fulfilled by regular deposits, understood as deposits of specific goods. It would be senseless and very costly to
deposit oil in separate, numbered containers (that is, as sealed deposits in which ownership is not transferred), or to place bills in an individually-numbered, sealed envelope. Though these extreme cases would constitute regular deposits in which ownership is not transferred, they would mean a loss of the extraordinary efficiency and cost reduction which result from treating individual deposits jointly and indistinctly from one another6 at no cost nor loss of availability to the depositor, who is just as happy if, when he requests it, he receives a tantundem equal in quantity and quality, but not identical in terms of specific content, to that which he originally handed over. The irregular deposit has other advantages as well. Inthe regular deposit, or deposit of specific goods, the depositary is not responsible for the loss of a good due to an inevitable
accident or act of God, while in the irregular deposit, the depositary is responsible even in the case of an act of God.
Therefore, in addition to the traditional advantages of immediate availability and safekeeping of the entire deposit, the irregular deposit acts as a type of insurance against the possibility of loss due to inevitable accidents.
THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENT IN THE MONETARY IRREGULAR-DEPOSIT
In the irregular deposit, the obligation to guard and protect the goods deposited, which is the fundamental element in all deposits, takes the form of an obligation to always maintain complete availability of the tantundem in favor of the
depositor. In other words, whereas in the regular deposit the specific good deposited must be continually guarded conscientiously and in individuo, in the deposit of fungible goods, what must be continually guarded, protected and kept available to the depositor is the tantundem; that is, the equivalent in quantity and quality to the goods originally handed over.
This means that in the irregular deposit, custody consists of the obligation to always keep available to the depositor goods of the same quantity and quality as those received. This availability, though the goods be continually replaced by others, is the equivalent in the case of fungible goods of keeping the in individuo
good in the case of non-fungibles. In other words, the owner of the grain warehouse or oil tank can use the specific oil or grain he receives, either for his own use or to return to another depositor, as long as he maintains available to the original depositor oil or grain of the same quantity and quality as those
deposited. In the deposit of money the same rule applies. If a friend gives you a twenty-dollar bill in deposit, we may consider that he transfers to you the ownership of the specific bill, and that you may use it for your own expenses or for any other use, as long as you keep the equivalent amount (in the form of another bill or two ten-dollar bills), so that the moment he requests you repay him, you can do so immediately with no problem and no need for excuses. To sum up, the logic behind the institution of irregular deposit is based on universal legal principles and suggests that the essential element of custody or safekeeping necessitates the continuous availability to the depositor of a tantundem equal to the original deposit. In the specific case of money, the quintessential fungible good, this means the safekeeping obligation requires the continuous availability to the depositor of a 100-percent cash reserve.
RESULTING EFFECTS OF THE F AILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE ESSENTIAL OBLIGATION IN THE IRREGULAR DEPOSIT
When there is a failure to comply with the obligation of safekeeping in a deposit, as is logical, it becomes necessary to indemnify the depositor, and if the depositary has acted fraudulently and has employed the deposited good for his
own personal use, he has committed the offense of misappropriation. Therefore, in the regular deposit, if someone receives the deposit of a painting, for example, and sells it to earn money, he is committing the offense of misappropriation. The
same offense is committed in the irregular deposit of fungible goods by the depositary who uses deposited goods for his own profit without maintaining the equivalent tantundem available to the depositor at all times. This would be the case of the oil depositary who does not keep in his tanks a quantity equal to the total deposited with him, or a depositary who receives money on deposit and uses it in any way for his own benefit (spending it himself or loaning it), but does not main-tain a 100-percent cash reserve at all times. The criminal law expert Antonio Ferrer Sama has explained that if the deposit consists of an amount of money and the obligation to return the same amount (irregular deposit), and the depositary takes the money and uses it for his own profit, we will have to
determine which of the following situations is the correct one in order to determine his criminal liability: at the time he takes the money the depositary has sufficient financial stability to return at any moment the amount received in
deposit; or, on the contrary, at the time he takes the money he does not have enough cash of his own with which to meet his obligation to return the depositor’s money at any moment he requests it. In the first case the offense of misappropriation has not been committed. However, if at the time the depositary takes the deposited amount he does not have enough cash in his power to fulfill his obligations to the depositor, he is guilty of misappropriation from the very moment he takes the goods deposited for his own use and ceases to possess a tantundem equivalent to the original deposit.
COURT DECISIONS ACKNOWLEDGING THE FUNDAMENTAL LEGAL
PRINCIPLES WHICH GOVERN THE MONETARY IRREGULAR-DEPOSIT
CONTRACT (100-PERCENT RESERVE REQUIREMENT)
As late as twentieth century, court decisions in Europe have upheld the demand for a 100-percent reserve requirement, the embodiment of the essential element of custody and safekeeping in the monetary irregular deposit. On June 12, 1927, the Court of Paris convicted a banker for the crime of misappropriation for having used, as was the common practice in banking, funds deposited with him by a client. On January 4, 1934, another ruling of the same court maintained the same position. In addition, when the Bank of Barcelona failed in Spain, Barcelona’s northern court of original jurisdiction, in response to protests of checking-account holders demanding recognition as depositors, pronounced a judgment acknowledging them as such and identifying their consequent preferential status as creditors of a bankruptcy claiming title to some of the
assets. The decision was based on the fact that the right of banks to use cash from checking accounts is necessarily restricted by the obligation to maintain the uninterrupted availability of these account funds to the checking-account
holder. As a result, this legal restriction on availability ruled out the possibility that the bank could consider itself exclusive owner of funds deposited in a checking account. Though the Spanish Supreme Court did not have the opportunity to rule on the failure of the Bank of Barcelona, a decision pronounced by it on June 21, 1928 led to a very similar conclusion:
According to the commercial practices and customs recognized by jurisprudence, the monetary deposit contract consists of the deposit of money with a person who, though he does not contract the obligation to retain for the depositor the same cash or assets handed over, must maintain possession of the amount deposited, with the purpose of returning it, partially or in its entirety, the moment the depositor should claim it; the depositary does not acquire the right to use the deposit for his own purposes, since, as he is obliged to return the deposit the moment it is requested of him, he must maintain constant possession of sufficient cash to do so.
deposit oil in separate, numbered containers (that is, as sealed deposits in which ownership is not transferred), or to place bills in an individually-numbered, sealed envelope. Though these extreme cases would constitute regular deposits in which ownership is not transferred, they would mean a loss of the extraordinary efficiency and cost reduction which result from treating individual deposits jointly and indistinctly from one another6 at no cost nor loss of availability to the depositor, who is just as happy if, when he requests it, he receives a tantundem equal in quantity and quality, but not identical in terms of specific content, to that which he originally handed over. The irregular deposit has other advantages as well. Inthe regular deposit, or deposit of specific goods, the depositary is not responsible for the loss of a good due to an inevitable
accident or act of God, while in the irregular deposit, the depositary is responsible even in the case of an act of God.
Therefore, in addition to the traditional advantages of immediate availability and safekeeping of the entire deposit, the irregular deposit acts as a type of insurance against the possibility of loss due to inevitable accidents.
THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENT IN THE MONETARY IRREGULAR-DEPOSIT
In the irregular deposit, the obligation to guard and protect the goods deposited, which is the fundamental element in all deposits, takes the form of an obligation to always maintain complete availability of the tantundem in favor of the
depositor. In other words, whereas in the regular deposit the specific good deposited must be continually guarded conscientiously and in individuo, in the deposit of fungible goods, what must be continually guarded, protected and kept available to the depositor is the tantundem; that is, the equivalent in quantity and quality to the goods originally handed over.
This means that in the irregular deposit, custody consists of the obligation to always keep available to the depositor goods of the same quantity and quality as those received. This availability, though the goods be continually replaced by others, is the equivalent in the case of fungible goods of keeping the in individuo
good in the case of non-fungibles. In other words, the owner of the grain warehouse or oil tank can use the specific oil or grain he receives, either for his own use or to return to another depositor, as long as he maintains available to the original depositor oil or grain of the same quantity and quality as those
deposited. In the deposit of money the same rule applies. If a friend gives you a twenty-dollar bill in deposit, we may consider that he transfers to you the ownership of the specific bill, and that you may use it for your own expenses or for any other use, as long as you keep the equivalent amount (in the form of another bill or two ten-dollar bills), so that the moment he requests you repay him, you can do so immediately with no problem and no need for excuses. To sum up, the logic behind the institution of irregular deposit is based on universal legal principles and suggests that the essential element of custody or safekeeping necessitates the continuous availability to the depositor of a tantundem equal to the original deposit. In the specific case of money, the quintessential fungible good, this means the safekeeping obligation requires the continuous availability to the depositor of a 100-percent cash reserve.
RESULTING EFFECTS OF THE F AILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE ESSENTIAL OBLIGATION IN THE IRREGULAR DEPOSIT
When there is a failure to comply with the obligation of safekeeping in a deposit, as is logical, it becomes necessary to indemnify the depositor, and if the depositary has acted fraudulently and has employed the deposited good for his
own personal use, he has committed the offense of misappropriation. Therefore, in the regular deposit, if someone receives the deposit of a painting, for example, and sells it to earn money, he is committing the offense of misappropriation. The
same offense is committed in the irregular deposit of fungible goods by the depositary who uses deposited goods for his own profit without maintaining the equivalent tantundem available to the depositor at all times. This would be the case of the oil depositary who does not keep in his tanks a quantity equal to the total deposited with him, or a depositary who receives money on deposit and uses it in any way for his own benefit (spending it himself or loaning it), but does not main-tain a 100-percent cash reserve at all times. The criminal law expert Antonio Ferrer Sama has explained that if the deposit consists of an amount of money and the obligation to return the same amount (irregular deposit), and the depositary takes the money and uses it for his own profit, we will have to
determine which of the following situations is the correct one in order to determine his criminal liability: at the time he takes the money the depositary has sufficient financial stability to return at any moment the amount received in
deposit; or, on the contrary, at the time he takes the money he does not have enough cash of his own with which to meet his obligation to return the depositor’s money at any moment he requests it. In the first case the offense of misappropriation has not been committed. However, if at the time the depositary takes the deposited amount he does not have enough cash in his power to fulfill his obligations to the depositor, he is guilty of misappropriation from the very moment he takes the goods deposited for his own use and ceases to possess a tantundem equivalent to the original deposit.
COURT DECISIONS ACKNOWLEDGING THE FUNDAMENTAL LEGAL
PRINCIPLES WHICH GOVERN THE MONETARY IRREGULAR-DEPOSIT
CONTRACT (100-PERCENT RESERVE REQUIREMENT)
As late as twentieth century, court decisions in Europe have upheld the demand for a 100-percent reserve requirement, the embodiment of the essential element of custody and safekeeping in the monetary irregular deposit. On June 12, 1927, the Court of Paris convicted a banker for the crime of misappropriation for having used, as was the common practice in banking, funds deposited with him by a client. On January 4, 1934, another ruling of the same court maintained the same position. In addition, when the Bank of Barcelona failed in Spain, Barcelona’s northern court of original jurisdiction, in response to protests of checking-account holders demanding recognition as depositors, pronounced a judgment acknowledging them as such and identifying their consequent preferential status as creditors of a bankruptcy claiming title to some of the
assets. The decision was based on the fact that the right of banks to use cash from checking accounts is necessarily restricted by the obligation to maintain the uninterrupted availability of these account funds to the checking-account
holder. As a result, this legal restriction on availability ruled out the possibility that the bank could consider itself exclusive owner of funds deposited in a checking account. Though the Spanish Supreme Court did not have the opportunity to rule on the failure of the Bank of Barcelona, a decision pronounced by it on June 21, 1928 led to a very similar conclusion:
According to the commercial practices and customs recognized by jurisprudence, the monetary deposit contract consists of the deposit of money with a person who, though he does not contract the obligation to retain for the depositor the same cash or assets handed over, must maintain possession of the amount deposited, with the purpose of returning it, partially or in its entirety, the moment the depositor should claim it; the depositary does not acquire the right to use the deposit for his own purposes, since, as he is obliged to return the deposit the moment it is requested of him, he must maintain constant possession of sufficient cash to do so.
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